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Man wearing popular Bond's brand "tighty-whiteys"Although it was worn for decades by exotic dancers, the g-string first gained popularity in South America, particularly in Brazil, in the 1980s. It was originally a style of swimsuit made so that the back of the suit is so thin that it disappears between the buttocks. By the 1990s, the design had made its way to most of the Western World, and thong underwear became popular. Today, thong underwear is one of the fastest selling styles available among women and is even gaining some popularity among men. In the 1990s, retailers started selling boxer briefs, which take the longer shape of boxers but maintain the tightness of briefs. Though marketed as a new design, these are actually quite similar to the bottom half of the two-part union suits worn in the 1910s. In 2006, fashion gurus Trinny Woodall and Susannah Constantine released a new style of underwear, which are made of Nylon and designed to flatten the tummy or buttocks so that the areas appear slimmer, therefore acting as both underwear and a slimming mechanism.[3] Underwear and brassieres are a common sex symbol in culture today and modeling such as fashion shows Men's underwear, 1990s to the present Men's underwear styles in the present day have seen a dramatic shift in style when compared to the evolution of female styles in underwear. While women's underwear continued to emphasize feminine sexuality, around the late 1980s and early 1990s; particularly in the United States, men's underwear styles began to deemphasize sexuality, in favor of baggier and looser styles. This trend also became evident in swimwear, which grew longer and looser in this period as well as all other fashions which also became consciously baggier and less form fitting. Despite this exodus from extremely revealing undergarments, tighter fitting underwear still remains popular. Religious significance Mormon Temple garments (two-piece style) The tzitzis strings of one corner of a tallit. Note how the eight strings are really four that are folded through the hole on the tallit.Undergarments can also have religious significance. For example: Some members of the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints wear special undergarments after they have been endowed in a temple to help them remember the teachings of the temple.[4] Many Jews wear a four-cornered garment called a tallit katan, with tzitzit (fringes) attached at the corners[5]. Some Hindus wear a sacred thread, called the Yajñopavītam, underneath their clothing. One of the five articles of the Sikh faith is underwear called kaccha. Underwear styles and function Traditional BriefToday, there are many options in underwear available. These include boxer style (at or near true waist, leg sections extending to thighs) woven boxer (traditional) knit boxer (like traditional but with more fabric give) boxer brief (also knit; more form-fitting) pouch boxer brief (boxer briefs but with pouch for genitals rather than access flap) athletic-style (skin-tight, usually with no access pouch or flap; like short tights; a variation are cycling shorts retro style (boxer shorts in a brief style) brief style (knit fabric, with access pouch or flap; usually at or near true waist, leg bands at tops of thighs traditional brief (vertical flap) double seat brief or double back brief diagonal flap brief pouch brief low-cut/low-rise brief bikini brief (usually lower than true waist, often at hips, usually no access pouch or flap, legs bands at tops of thighs) high-side bikini brief low-side bikini brief string bikini brief (the front and rear sections meet in the crotch with a shoestring-like thread at the top, with no fabric on the side of the legs) g-string type (with a front pouch for the genitals but no rear coverage) thong (with a strap securing the pouch at the bottom rear, passing up the crack between the buttocks to the waistband) athletic supporters, also known as jockstraps (with two straps securing the pouch at the bottom rear, passing through the perineum, around the bases of the buttocks up to the waistband at the sides) and dance belt strapless pouches (with a front pouch and waistband only, no securing straps) Man in boxer briefs (trunks style) Women's panties or knickersThere are also many types of long underwear, union suits, and other variations of men's underwear. Some underpants also have a fly. These usually do not allow detachment at the waist; elasticity allows them to be taken on and off. Usually the fly of underpants avoids exposure of the skin just by an overlap of cloth, without buttons, etc. Such a property may be one of the criteria for boxer shorts not to be suitable as outer clothing. Today, there are many specialized types of underwear made for sexual purposes, such as edible underwear or crotchless panties. Most of these are meant simply to display the body or genitals in certain ways, while some are intended to provide genital stimulation as well. Frederick's of Hollywood is an example of a business centered around manufacturing and selling such underwear. Not wearing undergarments Main article: Going commando Not wearing undergarments under one's outer clothing is also known in American slang as freeballing for men or freebuffing for females; the terms going commando and going bareback are also used for both sexes.[6] Finding female celebrities who are not wearing underwear and taking upskirt pictures of them is quite a common action undertaken by the paparazzi as the right picture of the right woman can earn them a lot of money. This trend shows that a few consider underwear unnecessary for hygiene, especially for modern people who bathe every day. In situations where a certain amount of body coverage is required (legally or socially), people who prefer to go clothes free might enjoy not wearing undergarments, as that is the closest they can get to nudity. For others, there may be sexual motives; undergarments are the final physical barrier to sex, and not wearing them might be arousing. Cycling shorts and swimwear such as board shorts are usually worn without underwear. Often the same applies for a kilt. |
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| Undergarment (Redirected from Underwear)• Ten things you may not know about images on Wikipedia •Jump to: navigation, search "Underwear" redirects here. For other uses, see Underwear (disambiguation). For the types and styles of women's undergarments, see lingerie. Undergarments, also called "underwear", "underpants," "lingerie", or "panties" (undergarments for women), or sometimes "intimate clothing", and "pants" or "knickers", are clothes worn next to the skin, usually under other clothes. They are also known as 'Katch' or 'Katchie' and worn under Indian traditional clothing. Contents 1 Uses 2 History 2.1 Ancient history 2.2 Middle Ages and Renaissance 2.2.1 Male undergarments 2.2.2 Female undergarments 2.3 Enlightenment and Industrial Age 2.4 1900s 2.5 1910s 2.6 1920s 2.7 1930s 2.8 1940s 2.9 1950s and 1960s 2.10 1970s till the present day 2.11 Men's underwear, 1990s to the present 3 Religious significance 4 Underwear styles and function 5 Not wearing undergarments 6 Underwear exposed above trousers and not wearing it 7 Designers / retailers of underwear 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Uses A man wearing a Japanese traditional fundoshi—specifically a red rokushaku.Some clothing is specifically underwear, while some is also used as swimsuits (if made of suitable material), and both T-shirts and some shorts are suitable as underwear as well as outer clothing. Suitability as outer clothing is, apart from outdoor or indoor climate, largely a social and sometimes even a legal matter. One of the criteria for shorts not to be suitable as outer clothing may be that it has a fly that avoids exposure of the genitals just by an overlap of cloth, without buttons etc.[citation needed] In the English Regency times this garment, basic for both men and women, was straight cut, usually knee length, and had the elbow length sleeves set straight into the shoulders. The two major types of men's underpants are boxer shorts (shorts-length and loose; also known as "boxers") and briefs (smaller and tighter), which are also referred to as Y-fronts in British English. In addition to keeping outer garments from soiling, undergarments are worn for a variety of reasons: warmth, comfort and hygiene being the most common. Undergarments are often used for modesty or erotic display; sometimes both of these motivations are simultaneously present. History Ancient history Roman female underwear from a mosaic at the Piazza Armerina, Sicily.The loincloth is the simplest form of underwear; it was probably the first undergarment worn by human beings. A loincloth may take three major forms. The first, and simplest, is simply a long strip of material which is passed between the legs and then around the waist. The ancient Hawaiian malo was of this form, as are several styles of the Japanese fundoshi. Another form is usually called a cache-sexe: a triangle of cloth is provided with strings or loops, which are used to fasten the triangle between the legs and over the genitals. The alternate form is more skirt-like: a cloth is wrapped around the hips several times and then fastened with a girdle. In warmer climates, the loincloth may be the only clothing worn (making it effectively not an undergarment), as was doubtlessly its origin, but in colder temperatures, the loincloth often forms the basis of a person's clothing and is covered by other garments. In most ancient civilizations, this was the only undergarment available (King Tutankhamun was buried with 145 of them). Men are said to have worn loincloths in ancient Greece and Rome, though it is unclear whether Greek women wore undergarments. Mosaics of the Roman period indicate Roman women (primarily in an athletic context, whilst wearing nothing else) sometimes wore wrapped breastcloths or brassieres made of soft leather, along with loincloths and possibly something like panties. Any cloth used may have been wool, linen or linsey-woolsey blend. Only the upper classes could have afforded imported silk. The loincloth continues to be worn by people around the world (it is the traditional form of undergarment in many Asian societies, for example). In various, mainly tropical, cultures, the traditional male dress may still prescribe only a single garment below the waist or even none at all, with underwear as optional, including the Far eastern Dhoti and Lungi or the Scottish kilt. Middle Ages and Renaissance Male undergarments Medieval braiesIn the Middle Ages, western men's underwear became looser fitting. The loincloth was replaced by loose, trouser-like clothing called braies, which the wearer stepped into and then laced or tied around the waist and legs at about mid-calf. Wealthier men often wore chausses as well, which only covered the legs. By the Renaissance, the chausses became form-fitting like modern Hose, and the braies became shorter to accommodate longer styles of chausses. However, chausses and many braies designs were not intended to be covered up by other clothing, so they are not actually underwear in the strictest sense. Charles V: 1530s codpiece.Braies were usually fitted with a flap in the front that buttoned or tied closed. This codpiece allowed men to urinate without having to remove the braies completely. Henry VIII of England began padding his own codpiece, which caused a spiraling trend of larger and larger codpieces that only ended by the end of the 16th century. There are two possible explanations for Henry VIII's codpiece becoming larger and larger. It is speculated that he, along with many others in this time period, may have had the venereal disease syphilis. The large codpiece may have included a bandage soaked in medication to relieve the symptoms. It would then be wrapped again to protect the outer clothing. Henry VIII also wanted a healthy son and may have thought that projecting himself in this way would portray fertility. The modern men's shirt appeared during this era, but it was originally an undergarment. Men would wear this long shirt under their other clothing and pull the long piece up from the back and then put their braies on over the shirt. In this way the shirt acted as underwear. Renaissance noblemen also adopted the doublet, a vest-like garment tied together in the front and worn under other clothing. Female undergarments This lady wears an informal linen jacket over her rose-pink pair of bodies (corset), smock, and elaborate petticoat, c. 1600Medieval women usually wore a close-fitting garment called a chemise in France or a smock in England (occasionally a shift), sometimes coupled with braies-like leg wrappings. They may have worn petticoats over the shift and under the dress. Quilted petticoats could be worn during the winter. Elaborately-quilted petticoats might be displayed by a cut-away dress, in which case they became a skirt rather than an undergarment. During the 16th century, the farthingale was popular. This was a petticoat stiffened with reed or willow rods so that it stood out from a woman's body, like a cone extending from the waist. Corsets also began to be worn about this time. At first they were called pair of bodies, which may refer both to a stiffened bodice designed to be seen, and a bodice stiffened with buckram, reeds, canes, whalebone etc., worn underneath another, decorative, bodice. These were not the small-waisted, curvy corsets familiar from the Victorian period, but straight-lined corsets that flattened the bust. There is a myth that Crusaders worried about the fidelity of their wives and forced them to wear chastity belts. There is no reference, image, or surviving belt to support this story. In fact most historians of this period are of the view that chastity belts were worn to prevent sexual assault and that the woman kept the key. Enlightenment and Industrial Age "Tight Lacing, or Fashion Before Ease", a satirical drawing of the early 1770sThe inventions of the spinning jenny machines and the cotton gin in the second half of the 18th century made cotton fabrics widely available. This allowed factories to mass-produce underwear, and for the first time, people began buying undergarments in stores rather than making them at home. Women's stays of the 18th century were laced behind and drew the shoulders back to form a high, round bosom and erect posture. With the relaxed country styles of the end of the century, stays became shorter and were unboned or only lightly boned, and were now called corsets. Undue binding of a corset sometimes led to a woman needing to retire to the fainting room. Colored stays were fashionable. 'health corsets' in 1883As tight waists became fashionable in the 1820s, the corset was again boned and laced to form the figure. By the 1860s, a tiny ('wasp') waist came to be seen as a symbol of beauty, and the corsets were stiffened with whalebone or steel to accomplish this. By the 1880s, the dress reform movement was campaigning against the pain and damage to internal organs and bones caused by tight lacing. Inez Gaches-Sarraute invented the Health corset, with a straight-fronted bust made to help support the muscles of the wearer. The corset was usually worn over a thin shirt-like garment of cotton or muslin called a shift. Shift In the latter half of the 19th century, long drawers, called pantalettes or pantaloons, often accompanied the shift to keep the legs out of sight as skirts styles got shorter. As skirts became fuller from the 1830s, women wore a profusion of petticoats to achieve the fashionable bell shape. By the 1850s, stiffened crinolines and later hoop skirts allowed ever wider skirts to be worn. The bustle, a frame or pad worn over the buttocks to enhance their shape, had been used off and on by women for two centuries, but it reached the height of its popularity the later 1880s, and went out of fashion for good in the 1890s. union suitThe standard undergarment of the late 19th century for men, women and children was the union suit, which provided coverage from the wrists to the ankles (this "second skin" style is more commonly known as long johns today). The union suits of the era were usually made of knitted material and included a drop flap in the back to ease visits to the toilet. Drawers for women were not generally worn until the mid-nineteenth century when the adoption of crinolines made them necessary for reasons of modesty and warmth. The jockstrap was invented in 1874 by C. F. Bennett of a Chicago sporting goods company, Sharp & Smith, to provide comfort and support for bicycle jockeys riding the cobblestone streets of Boston. In 1897 Bennett's newly-formed Bike Web Company patented and began mass-producing the Bike Jockey Strap[1]. |
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bridal lingerie: costume is a style of dress, including accessories and hairdos, esp. that peculiar to a nation, region, group, or historical period. |
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bridal underwear: bra ( brassiere) is an article of clothing that covers, supports, and elevates the adult costume breasts. |
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bridal costume: panty is a kind of short underpants for women or children (usually used in the adult costume plural) |
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Bridal Lingerie During the adult costume 1960s, there was a stir among the adult costume old, traditional views of women's undergarments that they wanted to look more like females anatomies. Female anatomy was largely misunderstood due to censorship of the adult costume subject. Some feminist women were proclaiming how traditional women's undergarments were created to impose control and distort the adult costume appearance of women's figures. This movement caused many females to have a new outlook on how they viewed their undergarments. the adult costume underpants began to have themselves made more like woman anatomy. Not long after, in the adult costume 1970s, a new chapter in women's taste opened. Women's undergarments became even more sexualized due to the adult costume ongoing sexual revolution at that time. the adult costume underpants got smaller and skinnier and began to sexualize themselves more up front. In today's society, panties have become an item of great interest in themselves. Considered by some to be risqué, panties have caused the adult costume lingerie industry to take advantage of their erotic associations. Lingerie chains such as Victoria's Secret and Frederick's of Hollywood hold annual modeling shows to showcase new varieties of panties and other assorted lingerie. A number of non-nude pornography websites survive through selling photo sets of women posing in bridal lingerie panties and other lingerie. In most modern cultures, panties have become a bit of a cultural icon describing sexual mischief and a fun way of life, especially for teenage girls and women in their early twenties who are more likely to enjoy them than women who grew up wearing granny panties. In Japan, panties (pantsu) are commonly depicted as being a highly flirtatious, naughty element to a female's persona. When a girl's skirt comes up high enough for her panties to be seen, it is called a 'panty shot'. Many websites on the adult costume internet make profits from selling the adult costume aforementioned kind of pornography or voyeurism. hen a male or female wears clothes without undergarments, it is often referred to as going commando. A brassiere (Brit. commonly referred to as a bra, bridal lingerie) is an article of clothing that covers, supports, and elevates the adult costume breasts. the adult costume bra is considered a foundation garment, as well as an undergarment, because of its role in shaping the adult costume wearer's figure. It was originally developed in the adult costume late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to replace the adult costume corset, and has now become, in many parts of the adult costume world, the adult costume most popular form of undergarment for the adult costume upper body, although camisoles and chemises are becoming more popular. |
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Bridal Underwear The French word brassière refers to a baby's vest (undershirt) or lifebelt, underbodice or harness. the adult costume word brassière derives from bracière, an Old French word meaning "arm protector" and referring to military uniforms (bras in French means "arm"). This later became used for a military breast plate, and later for a type of woman's corset. the adult costume current French term for brassière is soutien-gorge, literally, "held under the adult costume neck" or throat-support". In French, gorge (throat) was a common euphemism for the adult costume breast. the adult costume term "brassiere" seems to have come into use in the adult costume "brassiere" gradually came to be shortened to "bra". In the adult costume French-speaking Canadian province of Quebec, both soutien-gorge and brassière are used interchangeably. The claim that the adult costume brassiere was invented by a man named Otto Titzling (phonetically tit-sling) who lost a lawsuit with Phillip de Brassiere (fill up de' brassiere) is an urban legend that originated with the adult costume 1971 book Bust-Up: the adult costume bridal underwear and the adult costume Development of the adult costume Bra and was propagated in a song from the adult costume movie Beaches. During recorded history, women have used a variety of garments and devices to cover, restrain, or elevate their breasts. Brassiere or bikini-like garments are depicted on some female athletes in the adult costume seventh century BC during the adult costume Minoan civilization era. Similar functionality was achieved by both outerwear and underwear. From the adult costume 16th century onwards, the adult costume undergarments of wealthier women were dominated by the adult costume corset, which pushed the adult costume breasts upwards. In the adult costume latter part of the adult costume 19th century, clothing designers began experimenting with various alternatives to the adult costume corset, trying things like splitting the adult costume corset into multiple parts: a girdle-like restraining device for the adult costume lower torso, and devices that suspended the adult costume breasts from the adult costume shoulder for the adult costume upper torso. A brassiere usually consists of two cups for breasts, a centre panel, a band running around the adult costume torso under the adult costume bust, and a shoulder strap for each side. Brassieres are typically made of a fabric, such as cotton or polyester. Spandex and lace are also often used for various parts of the adult costume bra. The adult costume cups for the adult costume breasts may be reinforced by underwires made of metal originally, but mainly plastic now. the adult costume bra (bridal underwear) is usually fastened with a hook fastener on the adult costume band, typically at the adult costume back. In some bras the adult costume fastener is in the adult costume front, between the adult costume cups. Others are pulled on over the adult costume head and have no fasteners at all. Some bras contain padding, designed either to increase comfort, to conceal the adult costume nipples, or to make the adult costume breasts appear larger. Breast pads, commonly known as "falsies" or "cutlets", are sometimes worn between the adult costume breasts and the adult costume bra to create the adult costume illusion of a larger cup size. Push-up bras in particular are designed to enhance the adult costume cleavage and use padding and the adult costume cut of the adult costume pattern to achieve this effect. |
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Bridal
Costume The size of a bra is commonly described by two values. the adult costume first is the adult costume band size (bridal costume), a number based on the adult costume circumference of the adult costume chest under the adult costume bust, excluding the adult costume breasts. the adult costume second is the adult costume cup size given by a letter of the adult costume alphabet, and relating to the adult costume volume of the adult costume breasts themselves. For example, a 30D bra is for a 30-size band and a D-size cup. Cup sizes typically start with A, the adult costume smallest, and increase alphabetically. Band size is usually determined by measuring body circumference under the adult costume breasts as tight as possible. A second measurement is a loose fit taken of the adult costume chest circumference over the adult costume fullest part of the adult costume breasts (overbust). the adult costume cup size can then be calculated with tables or a conversion tool from the adult costume difference between these two measurements. Women often find it difficult to find the adult costume correct bra size. To achieve perfect sizing consistently, a bra would have to be custom made, because a "one-size-fits-all" manufacturing process is fraught with bridal costume. Breasts vary in the adult costume position on the adult costume chest, and in their diameters. A number of stores have certified professional bra-fitters specialists. However, even bra fitters have been shown to be quite variable in their recommendations. Buying "off-the-shelf" or "online" bras is unwise if the adult costume buyer has never tried on the adult costume brand and type of bra that they are interested in buying. Some bra manufacturers and distributors state that trying on and learning to recognize a proper fit is the adult costume best way to determine a correct bra size, much the adult costume same as with shoes. Some critics observe that measuring systems such as the adult costume one described above often lead to an incorrect size, most commonly too small in the adult costume cup, and too large in the adult costume band. For anyone, especially cup sizes larger than a D, one should get a professional fitting from the adult costume lingerie department of a clothing store or a specialty lingerie store. Some women intentionally buy larger cups and pad them, while yet others buy smaller cups to give the adult costume appearance of being "full". Finally, the adult costume elastic properties of the adult costume band make band size highly unreliable, and in one study the adult costume label size was consistently different from the adult costume measured size. Fashion and image drive the adult costume bra market, and these factors often take precedence over comfort and function. |
| A brassiere (Brit. /'bɹæzɪə(ɹ)/; U.S. /bɹə'ziɹ/, commonly referred
to as a bra, /bɹɑ/) is an article of clothing that covers, supports, and
elevates the breasts. The bra is considered a foundation garment, as
well as an undergarment, because of its role in shaping the wearer's
figure. It was originally developed in the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries to replace the corset, and has now become, in many
parts of the world, the most popular form of undergarment for the upper
body, although camisoles and chemises are becoming more popular. The bra may be worn to support and enhance breast shape during everyday activities and a specialized bra, the sports bra to support and restrain breasts during exercise. Some wearers believe that wearing it will prevent their breasts from sagging later in life. However, there are no reports in the scientific medical literature that support that notion. In fact some reports have suggested that wearing a bra will promote ligament atrophy, which contributes to sagging, so the matter is open to debate. The bra may also be worn to observe modesty or to present a certain image of femininity. Bras are typically designed to lift the breasts into a particular position, for a more youthful look or for enhancing cleavage . These roles are sometimes conflicting. Some designers aim at producing a garment that fulfills a practical role as well as making it look attractive. Bras are also used during pregnancy (when breasts are enlarged and more sensitive), and for nursing (see nursing bra) to support and provide access for breastfeeding. Many have questioned the practical need for the bra. Some women prefer not to wear a bra and go braless on a regular basis. In many nations, a bra is often not worn. Some have suggested that a bra does little to prevent the effects of aging on the breasts, and some have claimed that breasts are healthier when left free to move rather than being restrained. Also, the bra has become charged with political and cultural meanings that overlay its practical purpose. Traditionally it is viewed as symbolic of a young girl's coming of age, one of the tokens that indicate that she has become a young woman. It can also be interpreted as a feminine icon. On the other hand, some may see it as a symbol of the repression of women's bodies. All of these debates mean that the bra has assumed a cultural significance which exceeds that which is normally accorded to item of clothing (e.g. socks, dress shirts, or gloves). Etymology The French word brassière refers to a baby's vest (undershirt) or lifebelt, underbodice or harness. The word brassière derives from bracière, an Old French word meaning "arm protector" and referring to military uniforms (bras in French means "arm"). This later became used for a military breast plate, and later for a type of woman's corset. The current French term for brassière is soutien-gorge, literally, "held under the neck" or "throat-support". In French, gorge (throat) was a common euphemism for the breast. This dates back to the garment developed by Herminie Cadolle in 1905. The term "brassiere" seems to have come into use in the English language as early as 1893. Manufacturers were using the term by about 1904, Vogue magazine first used it in 1907, and by 1911 the word had made its way into the Oxford English Dictionary. On 13 November 1914, the brassiere was patented by Mrs Mary Phelps Jacob also known as Caresse Crosby. In the 1930s, "brassiere" gradually came to be shortened to "bra". In the French-speaking Canadian province of Quebec, both soutien-gorge and brassière are used interchangeably. The claim that the brassiere was invented by a man named Otto Titzling (phonetically tit-sling) who lost a lawsuit with Phillip de Brassiere (fill up de' brassiere) is an urban legend that originated with the 1971 book Bust-Up: The Uplifting Tale of Otto Titzling and the Development of the Bra and was propagated in a song from the movie Beaches. History During recorded history, women have used a variety of garments and devices to cover, restrain, or elevate their breasts. Brassiere or bikini-like garments are depicted on some female athletes in the seventh century BC during the Minoan civilization era. Similar functionality was achieved by both outerwear and underwear. From the 16th century onwards, the undergarments of wealthier women were dominated by the corset, which pushed the breasts upwards. In the latter part of the 19th century, clothing designers began experimenting with various alternatives to the corset, trying things like splitting the corset into multiple parts: a girdle-like restraining device for the lower torso, and devices that suspended the breasts from the shoulder for the upper torso. By the early 20th century, garments more closely resembling contemporary bras had emerged, although large-scale commercial production did not occur until the 1930s. Since then, bras have replaced corsets (although some prefer camisoles), and bra manufacture and sale has become a multi-billion-dollar industry. Over time, the emphasis on bras has largely shifted from functionality to fashion. In China during the Ming dynasty a form of foundation clothe complete with cups and straps drawn over shoulders and tied to the girth seam at the lower back called a dudou was in vogue among the rich women. (Oriental Clothing and Modern Fetishism, various authors, ed. Partho Shanner, 1996, Yeti, Hong Kong). While they first arose in the Ming Dynasty, were also common in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). In English they are known as 'stomach protectors' or 'tummy covers' Construction and fit A brassiere usually consists of two cups for breasts, a centre panel, a band running around the torso under the bust, and a shoulder strap for each side. Brassieres are typically made of a fabric, such as cotton or polyester. Spandex and lace are also often used for various parts of the bra. The cups for the breasts may be reinforced by underwires made of metal originally, but mainly plastic now. The bra is usually fastened with a hook fastener on the band, typically at the back. In some bras the fastener is in the front, between the cups. Others are pulled on over the head and have no fasteners at all. Some bras contain padding, designed either to increase comfort, to conceal the nipples, or to make the breasts appear larger. Breast pads, commonly known as "falsies" or "cutlets", are sometimes worn between the breasts and the bra to create the illusion of a larger cup size. Push-up bras in particular are designed to enhance the cleavage and use padding and the cut of the pattern to achieve this effect. Fitting The backstrap (band) and cups should provide most of the support, rather than the shoulder straps, which are responsible for a number of health problems (see Mechanical principles, below). When viewed from the side, the strap that runs around the body should be horizontal, should not ride up the back, and should be firm but comfortable. The underwires at the front should lie flat against the rib cage (not the breast), along the infra-mammary fold, and should not dig in to the chest or the breasts, rub or poke out at the front. The breasts should be enclosed by the cups and there should be a smooth line where the fabric at the top of the cup ends. There should not be a ridge or any bulging over the top or sides of the cups, even with a low-cut style such as the balconette bra. Mechanical principles A pair of breasts can weigh several kilograms. For instance a pair of "D cup" breasts may weigh 15–23 pounds (7–10 kg), dependent on band and cup size. One of the principal functions of a bra is to elevate and "support" the breasts, that is, to raise them from their normal position lying against the chest wall. The bra's shoulder strap should bear little weight. This is considered the defining characteristic of the bra: supporting the weight from the back and shoulders, as opposed to lift from below (as corsets do). Over-reliance on the platform (backstrap) for support will lead to undue compression of the breasts, so much of the weight tends to be carried by the shoulder strap, particularly for larger breasts. The major engineering weakness of the bra is that it acts as a pulley, transferring the weight of the breasts from the lower chest wall to higher structures such as the back, shoulder, neck, and head. This can result in pain and injury in those structures, especially for women with pendulous breasts. Size and measurement The comfort and function of any given bra is highly dependent on the correct size and fit. A large range of sizes are available to cater to the wide variety in the size of women's breasts and bodies. Bra sizes typically vary in two ways: the volume of the cups that fit over the breast, and the length of the back strap that goes around the body. It is essential that the bra fit correctly in both of these dimensions. There is typically some ability to adjust the band size, since bras usually have three or four alternative sets of fastening hooks. The shoulder straps of a bra are also almost always adjustable. The size of women's breasts is often expressed in terms of her usual bra size. Measurement systems Although all bras are labeled by size, many women find that the only way to obtain a bra that fits properly and achieves the effect they want is by trial and error with each bra type, model and brand. This method is the most reliable. Though many countries use the metric system, the majority of nations still use imperial units to determine the underband size of the bra itself. There are several methods which may be used to provide an approximate size by taking measurements. However, bra sizing systems differ widely between countries, between manufacturers, and between brands and designs, which can create many problems. Many researchers have demonstrated that these problems arise because fit requires knowing the breast volume, not the body circumference (the distance around the body), which is what is actually measured. Although bra sizing uses the circumference to estimate the volume, this has been shown to be highly unreliable. The size of a bra is commonly described by two values. The first is the band size (underband), a number based on the circumference of the chest under the bust, excluding the breasts. The second is the cup size given by a letter of the alphabet, and relating to the volume of the breasts themselves. For example, a 30D bra is for a 30-size band and a D-size cup. Cup sizes typically start with A, the smallest, and increase alphabetically. A double lettering system may also be used, e.g. DDD for F or AA for a size smaller than A. Band size is usually determined by measuring body circumference under the breasts as tight as possible. A second measurement is a loose fit taken of the chest circumference over the fullest part of the breasts (overbust). The cup size can then be calculated with tables or a conversion tool from the difference between these two measurements. The mean underband circumference in the UK is 34 inches (86 cm). For the overbust measurement, this is 40 inches (101 cm), for women 18–64 years. Fitting difficulties Women often find it difficult to find the correct bra size. To achieve perfect sizing consistently, a bra would have to be custom made, because a "one-size-fits-all" manufacturing process is fraught with difficulties. Breasts vary in the position on the chest, and in their diameters. A number of stores have certified professional bra-fitters specialists. However, even bra fitters have been shown to be quite variable in their recommendations. Buying "off-the-shelf" or "online" bras is unwise if the buyer has never tried on the brand and type of bra that they are interested in buying. Some bra manufacturers and distributors state that trying on and learning to recognize a proper fit is the best way to determine a correct bra size, much the same as with shoes. Some critics observe that measuring systems such as the one described above often lead to an incorrect size, most commonly too small in the cup, and too large in the band. For anyone, especially cup sizes larger than a D, one should get a professional fitting from the lingerie department of a clothing store or a specialty lingerie store. Some women intentionally buy larger cups and pad them, while yet others buy smaller cups to give the appearance of being "full". Finally, the elastic properties of the band make band size highly unreliable, and in one study the label size was consistently different from the measured size. Fashion and image drive the bra market, and these factors often take precedence over comfort and function. As already noted, there is no agreed standard across all manufacturers for measuring and specifying bra size. Obtaining the correct size is further complicated by the fact that the size and shape of a woman's breasts fluctuate during her menstrual cycle, and also with weight gain or loss. Even breathing can substantially alter the measurements. It is frequently stated, from the results of surveys, that between 70 and 100% of women are wearing incorrectly fitted bras. This may be partly due to a lack of understanding of how to correctly determine bra size; it may also be due to unusual or unexpectedly rapid growth in size brought on by pregnancy, weight gain, or medical conditions including virginal breast hypertrophy. As breasts become larger, their shape and the distribution of the tissues within them changes, becoming ptotic and bulbous rather than conical. This makes measurements increasingly unreliable, especially for large breasts. Similarly the heavier a build the woman has, the more inaccurate the underbust measurement as the tape sinks into the flesh more easily. Finally, most women are asymmetrical (10% severely), with the left breast being larger in 62%, especially when the breasts are large. Many of the health problems associated with bras are due to fitting problems and are discussed further below, under health problems. However, finding a comfortable fit is described as very difficult by many women, which has affected sales. Medical studies have also attested to the difficulty of getting a correct fit. |
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